Eileen Zurbriggen - Publications

While articles listed below are all authored or co-authored by Eileen Zurbriggen, articles are all copyrighted © (generally by their respective publishers) and articles below are only provided for reference and individual scholarly access only. For all commercial use, please contact the respective copyright holder(s).

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Year: 1995 | 1999 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009
2010 | 2011 | 2012 | In press

     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2011). Preventing secondary trauma in the undergraduate classroom: Lessons from theory and clinical practice. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3, 223-228 Abstract: Indirect exposure to traumatic events or to survivors of trauma can itself be traumatizing and lead to symptoms similar to those of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a phenomenon known as secondary traumatization. Undergraduate students enrolled in courses on trauma are potentially vulnerable to secondary traumatization, although no research on them has been conducted. Literature on trauma therapy and the prevention of secondary traumatization is reviewed and suggestions are made for generalizing those findings to the university classroom. Issues of trauma exposure, safety, education, self-care, empowerment, and social support are discussed.

Keywords: vicarious experiences, emotional trauma, teaching, college students, distress

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., Ramsey, L., & Jaworski, B. K. (2011). The role of objectification in relationship satisfaction: Self, partner, and media consumption. Sex Roles, 64, 449-462. Abstract: Few studies have examined objectification in the context of romantic relationships, even though strong theoretical arguments have often made this connection. This study addresses this gap in the literature by examining whether exposure to mass media is related to self-objectification and objectification of one???s partner, which in turn is hypothesized to be related to relationship and sexual satisfaction. A sample of undergraduate students (91 women and 68 men) enrolled in a university on the west coast of the United States completed self-report measures of the following variables: selfobjectification, objectification of one???s romantic partner, relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and exposure to objectifying media. Men reported higher levels of partner objectification than did women; there was no gender difference in self-objectification. Self- and partnerobjectification were positively correlated; this correlation was especially strong for men. In regression analyses, partner-objectification was predictive of lower levels of relationship satisfaction. Furthermore, a path model revealed that consuming objectifying media is related to lowered relationship satisfaction through the variable of partnerobjectification. Finally, self- and partner-objectification were related to lower levels of sexual satisfaction among men. This study provides evidence for the negative effects of objectification in the context of romantic relationships among young adults.

Keywords: objectification, romantic relationships, relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, mass media

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     DePrince, A. P., Zurbriggen, E. L., Chu, A. T., & Smart, L. (2010). Development of the Trauma Appraisal Questionnaire (TAQ). Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 19, 275-299. Abstract: This study describes the development and psychometric properties of the Trauma Appraisal Questionnaire (TAQ). Items were generated based on interviews with 72 ethnically diverse community participants exposed to a range of trauma types. From the interviews, more than 600 items that tapped beliefs, emotions, and behaviors were generated for 9 appraisal categories (e.g., fear, betrayal, shame). Based on expert feedback, 108 items were retained for initial testing in a sample of 714 undergraduate volunteers. Using a factor analytic strategy, we arrived at a 6-scale, 54-item solution. The reliability and validity of the new measure were evaluated in community (N = 119) and undergraduate (Ns = 139 and 79) samples. The measure demonstrated excellent reliability (test–retest and internal consistency) and validity (convergent, discriminant, and concurrent).

Keywords: appraisal, cognitions, posttraumatic distress, PTSD, trauma

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., Gobin, R., & Freyd, J. J. (2010). Childhood emotional abuse predicts late adolescent sexual aggression perpetration and victimization. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 19, 204-223. Abstract: Childhood physical and sexual abuse are known risk factors for adult sexual aggression perpetration and victimization, but less is known about the role played by childhood emotional abuse. College sophomores were surveyed regarding their childhood physical, sexual and emotional abuse victimization and their late-adolescent experiences of sexual aggression victimization and perpetration. Controlling for social desirability and childhood physical and sexual abuse, childhood emotional abuse was the strongest predictor of adolescent sexual perpetration for women and the strongest predictor of adolescent sexual victimization for men. Emotional abuse was a marginally reliable predictor of adolescent sexual victimization in women. These results show the importance of childhood emotional abuse victimization as a risk factor for sexual victimization and perpetration in adolescent intimate relationships.

Keywords: adolescent dating violence, cycle of violence, emotional abuse, physical abuse, revictimization, sexual abuse, sexual aggression

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     Morgan, E. M., Thorne, A., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2010). A longitudinal study of conversations with parents about sex and dating during college. Developmental Psychology, 46, 139-150. Abstract: Emerging adulthood is a time of sexual and romantic relationship development as well as change in the parent. child relationship. This study provides a longitudinal analysis of 30 young adults. (17 women, 13 men) sexual experiences, attitudes about sexuality and dating, and reported conversations with parents about sexuality and dating from the 1st and 4th years of college. Self-report questionnaires revealed increases in general closeness with parents, increases in sexual and dating experiences, and more sexually permissive as well as more gender stereotyped attitudes. Qualitative analyses of individual interviews indicated a movement from unilateral and restrictive sex-based topics to more reciprocal and relationship-focused conversations over time. Gender analyses revealed that young women reported more restrictive sex messages and young men more positive sex messages. Participants also described increased openness and comfort in talking about sexual topics with both mothers and fathers from the 1st to 4th year of college. Overall, the results suggest that prior findings of increased mutuality with parents during the college years extend to the traditionally taboo topic of sexuality.

Keywords: parent. child conversations, emerging adulthood, sexual development, romantic relationship development

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     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2009). Understanding and preventing adolescent dating violence: The importance of developmental, socio-cultural and gendered perspectives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 30-33. Abstract: The three articles in this special section on the development of adolescent dating violence provide important insights that can help shape future research and theory. Several common themes emerged. The roots of adolescent dating violence are broad and deep; thus, developmental and sociocultural perspectives are necessary to adequately understand this phenomenon. Adolescent dating violence is deeply gendered and requires that researchers make gender a centerpiece of their theorizing. These two insights lead to the conclusion that prevention efforts must start early, be broad based, and include gender in a fundamental way. In addition, longitudinal and ecological approaches hold the most promise for future research.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2008). Sexualized torture and abuse at Abu Ghraib prison: Feminist psychological analyses. Feminism and Psychology, 18, 301-320. Abstract: A feminist analysis of the torture of Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib illuminates aspects of the abuses that have not been previously considered. Social psychological studies that emphasize the importance of a (degendered) . power of the situation. in determining behaviour have not adequately considered the effects of masculine socialization. The sexualized nature of the abuses at Abu Ghraib was centred on feminization of the prisoners and was an enactment of misogyny and homophobia. Rather than minimizing the harmfulness of the Abu Ghraib abuses, comparisons of them with fraternity hazings and pornography suggest that hazing and pornography are harmful. Finally, prevention of future abuses will be difficult because of the fundamental contradiction in socializing soldiers to kill, yet expecting them to feel empathy for the enemy.

Keywords: empathy, fraternity hazing, homophobia, masculine socialization, misogyny, pornography, prison abuses, sexualization

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Sherman, A. M. (2007). Reconsidering 'sex' and 'gender:' Two steps forward, one step back. Feminism and Psychology, 17, 475-480. Abstract: The authors reflect on Rhoda Unger's classic paper "Toward a Redefinition of Sex and Gender," first published in "American Psychologist" in 1979. They believe that Unger's paper had a huge impact on the way individual psychologists, and the field as a whole, think about sex and gender. They cite insightful points made by Unger, one of which states that men and women are especially alike in their beliefs about their own differences.

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     Morgan, E. M., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2007). Wanting sex and wanting to wait: Young adults' accounts of sexual messages from first significant dating partners. Feminism and Psychology, 17, 515-541. Abstract: This study provided a qualitative analysis of 79 young adults' descriptions of sexual and relational messages they received from their first significant dating partner. For both men and women, the most frequent theme concerned the negotiation of first sexual intercourse with that partner; other themes differed by gender. Women reported receiving messages from male partners that indicated a high interest in sexual activity as well as pressure to engage in sexual activity. Women's responses to these messages often involved giving in to unwanted sexual activity. Men reported receiving messages from female partners concerning setting sexual boundaries; they responded to these messages with both acceptance and frustration. Accounts of first significant dating relationships also included discussions of having learned from these relationships, suggesting that experiences with first significant dating partners may have lasting sexual and relational influences. These results suggest the presence of complementary gendered messages that contribute to the reproduction of compulsory heterosexuality, gendered power imbalances, and sexual coercion.

Keywords: adolescence, romantic relationships, sexual coercion, sexual roles, sexual socialization

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., Fontenot, D. E., & Meyer, D. E. (2006). Representation and execution of vocal motor programs for expert singing of tonal melodies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 944-963. Abstract: Three experiments were conducted to study motor programs used by expert singers to produce short tonal melodies. Each experiment involved a response-priming procedure in which singers prepared to sing a primary melody but on 50% of trials had to switch and sing a different (secondary) melody instead. In Experiment 1, secondary melodies in the same key as the primary melody were easier to produce than secondary melodies in a different key. Experiment 2 showed that it was the initial note rather than key per se that affected production of secondary melodies. In Experiment 3, secondary melodies involving exact transpositions were easier to sing than secondary melodies with a different contour than the primary melody. Also, switches between the keys of C and G were easier than those between C and E. Taken together, these results suggest that the initial note of a melody may be the most important element in the motor program, that key is represented in a hierarchical form, and that melodic contour is represented as a series of exact semitone offsets.

Keywords: singing, music production, motor programs, response-priming paradigm, musical key and contour

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     Yost, M. R., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2006). Gender differences in the enactment of sociosexuality: An examination of implicit social motives, sexual fantasies, coercive sexual attitudes and aggressive sexual behavior. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 163-173. Abstract: An unrestricted sociosexual orientation (the endorsement of casual sex) has been found to correlate with undesirable behaviors and personality characteristics more so in men than in women. Using a community sample of men and women, we investigated the correlations between socio-sexuality and behaviors, motives, attitudes, and fantasies related to sexual aggression. Participants (n = 168; ages 21-45) completed self-report measures of sociosexual orientation, sexual conservatism, rape myth acceptance, adversarial sexual beliefs, attitudes toward women, sexual behaviors, and perpetration of sexual aggression. Participants also wrote five brief stories that were scored for power and affiliation-intimacy motives and two sexual fantasies that were coded for the theme of dominance. For both men and women, an unrestricted sociosexual orientation was correlated with behavioral items indicating earlier life experiences with sex, a greater number of lifetime sex partners, and more frequent sexual activity. For men, an unrestricted sociosexual orientation was linked with higher levels of rape myth acceptance and adversarial sexual beliefs; more conservative attitudes toward women; higher levels of power motivation and lower levels of affiliation-intimacy motivation; and past use of sexual aggression. For women, an unrestricted sociosexual orientation was associated with sexual fantasies of dominance and lower levels of sexual conservatism.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Morgan, E. M. (2006). Who wants to marry a millionaire? Reality dating television programs, attitudes toward sex, and sexual behaviors. Sex Roles, 54, 1-17. Abstract: Past research has revealed associations between television viewing and sexual attitudes and behaviors. We examined a burgeoning new television genre, reality dating programs (RDPs). Undergraduate students (ages 18. 24) reported their overall television viewing, their RDP viewing, and their involvement with RDPs (watching in order to learn and watching in order to be entertained). They also completed measures of attitudes toward sex, dating, and relationships, and answered questions about sexual behavior. Most participants were occasional or frequent viewers of at least one RDP. Men reported using RDPs for learning more than did women; there was no gender difference in use of RDPs for entertainment. Total amount of RDP viewing was positively correlated, for both men and women, with adversarial sexual beliefs, endorsement of a sexual double standard, and the beliefs that men are sex-driven, that appearance is important in dating, and that dating is a game. In all cases, however, these relationships were partially or totally mediated through viewer involvement. Men and women who watched RDPs tended to be less sexually experienced; there were few other correlations with sexual behaviors.

Keywords: reality dating television programs, viewer involvement, attitudes toward sex, sexual behaviors, entertainment and learning motives

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     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2005). Lies in a time of threat: Betrayal blindness and the 2004 U. S. presidential election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 5, 189-196. Abstract: Exit polls from the 2004 U.S. presidential election indicated overwhelming support for President Bush among voters who said they valued honesty, even though the Bush administration had been sharply criticized for deceiving the public, especially concerning the reasons for invading Iraq. A psychological theory recently developed to help explain memory loss in trauma survivors sheds light on this paradox. Betrayal Trauma Theory ( Freyd, 1996 ) states that memory impairment is greatest when a victim is dependent on the perpetrator. The theory also predicts who will be . blind. to signs of deception. those who are emotionally or financially dependent on the person who is lying. Although every American is dependent on the U.S. President to some extent, religious conservatives may be more psychologically dependent than others. Because they believe their core values are under attack, they depend on powerful leaders such as President Bush to defend these values. This psychological dependence may make it difficult for them to notice the administration's deceptions.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Yost, M. R. (2004). Power, desire, and pleasure in sexual fantasies. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 288-300. Abstract: One hundred and sixty-two participants (ages 21-45) wrote open-ended sexual fantasies and completed self-report measures of rape myth acceptance, adversarial sexual beliefs, and attitudes toward women. We coded fantasies using a newly developed scoring system that includes themes of dominance, submission, sexual pleasure, and sexual desire. Men fantasized about dominance more than women did; they also tended to focus more on the desire and pleasure of their partner. Desire and pleasure were more closely linked in the fantasies of men than in the fantasies of women, for whom the two were distinct constructs. Although fantasies of submission were not associated with problematic attitudes for either gender, men's fantasies of dominance were associated with greater acceptance of rape myths. For women, greater rape myth acceptance was associated with emotional and romantic fantasy themes.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Freyd, J. J. (2004). The link between child sexual abuse and risky sexual behavior: The role of dissociative tendencies, information-processing effects, and consensual sex decision mechanisms. In L. J. Koenig, A. O'Leary, L. S. Doll, and W. Pequegnat (Eds.), From child sexual abuse to adult sexual risk: Trauma revictimization and intervention (pp. 117-134). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Abstract: Not provided.

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     Quina, K., Morokoff, P. J., Harlow, L. L, & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2004). Cognitive and attitudinal paths from childhood trauma to adult HIV risk. In L. J. Koenig, A. O'Leary, L. S. Doll, and W. Pequegnat (Eds.), From child sexual abuse to adult sexual risk: Trauma revictimization and intervention (pp. 135-157). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Abstract: Not provided.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Becker-Blease, K. (2003). Predicting memory for childhood sexual abuse: "Non-significant" findings with the potential for significant harm. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12(2), 113-121. Abstract: Discusses the findings of a research on memory for childhood sexual abuse by G.S. Goodman et al in 2003. Non-disclosure rate; Conclusion that forgetting childhood abuse might be relatively uncommon; Relation of age, severity of abuse, and maternal support to disclosure; Logistic regression analysis; Betrayal trauma theory; Problems with logistic regression analysis that make interpretation difficult; Sparseness of data; Multicollinearity;

Keywords:

sexual abuse, memory for trauma, statistical power, statistical significance, sample size, multicollinearity Full Text Available: PDF
     Zurbriggen, E. L., Pearce, G. E., & Freyd, J. J. (2003). Evaluating the impact of betrayal for children exposed in photographs. Children and Society, 17, 305-320. Abstract: Elements of betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1996) are used to evaluate potential negative and positive consequences for children who serve as artistic models, particularly those who model for their artist parents. Several dimensions are considered in evaluating the likelihood of harm: nudity, motives of the artist, consent, external vulnerability, and objectification. Recommendations to artists include appointing an advocate for the child, discussing photographic sessions and allowing observers, and going beyond standard release procedures. Similarities to the domains of creative writing and research psychology are considered.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Sturman, T. S. (2002). Linking motives and emotions: A test of McClelland's hypotheses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 521-535. Abstract: McClelland (1985)hypothesized that motives and emotions are linked in specific ways, with each primary emotion relevant to only one motive. Two studies were generally supportive of the specific links hypothesized by McClelland. In Study 1, participants visualized success at satisfying each of three motives (achievement, affiliation-intimacy, and power); after each visualization, they reported their emotional state. As predicted, levels of interest and surprise were high after the achievement visualization but levels of excitement and focus were also high. Happiness and love were high after the affiliation-intimacy visualization (as predicted)but happiness was also high after the achievement visualization. Levels of anger, disgust, and confusion were highest after the power visualization. In Study 2, participants recalled instances of happiness, sadness, anger, and feeling challenged. Anger stories were most likely to be about power, sadness stories about affiliation-intimacy, and challenge stories about achievement. The most frequent happiness stories were about either affiliation-intimacy or achievement.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2002). Sexual objectification by research participants: Recent experiences and strategies for coping. Feminism and Psychology, 12, 261-268. Abstract: Narrates the author's experiences of conducting research on intimate relationships and sexuality using questionnaires mailed to 200 men and women. Reporting and describing sexual fantasies; Protecting participants' rights, feelings and privacy; Experiences of objectification; Strategies suggested to minimize and manage emotional and psychological distress before and during data collection.

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     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2002). Researching sensitive topics: Stories, struggles, and strategies. Feminism and Psychology, 12, 253-255. Abstract: Introduces a special section on sexuality, childhood sexual abuse, heterosexual feminist identity and body-image interventions, published in the May 2002 issue of 'Feminism & Psychology.'

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     Freyd, J. J., DePrince, A. P., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2001). Self-reported memory for abuse depends upon victim-perpetrator relationship. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 2(3), 5-17. Abstract: This article presents preliminary results from the Betrayal Trauma Inventory (BTI), which tests predictions from betrayal trauma theory (J. J. Freyd, 1994, 1996, in press) about the relationship between amnesia and betrayal by a caregiver. For this study, 202 undergraduate students participated in the survey. The BTI assesses trauma history using behaviorally defined events in the domains of sexual, physical, and emotional childhood abuse, as well as other lifetime traumatic events. When participants endorse an abuse experience, follow-up questions assess a variety of factors including memory impairment and perpetrator relationship. Preliminary results support the prediction that abuse perpetrated by a caregiver is related to less persistent memories of abuse. This relationship is significant for sexual and physical abuse. Regression analyses revealed that age was not a significant predictor of memory impairment and that duration of abuse could not account for the findings.

Keywords: memory, amnesia, childhood abuse, betrayal trauma

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     Zurbriggen, E. L. (2000). Social motives and cognitive power/sex associations: Predictors of aggressive sexual behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 559-581. Abstract: The present study investigated whether implicit social motives and cognitive power-sex associations would predict self-reports of aggressive sexual behavior. Participants wrote stories in response to Thematic Apperception Test pictures, which were scored for power and affiliation-intimacy motives. They also completed a lexical-decision priming task that provided an index of the strength of the cognitive association between the concepts of "power" and "sexuality." For men, high levels of power motivation and strong power-sex associations predicted more frequent aggression. There was also an interaction: Power motivation was unrelated to aggression for men with the weakest power-sex associations. For women, high levels of affiliation-intimacy motivation were associated with more frequent aggression. Strong power-sex associations were also predictive for women but only when affiliationintimacy motivation was high.

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     Glass, J. M., Schumacher, E. H., Lauber, E. J., Zurbriggen, E. L., Gmeindl, L., Kieras, D. E., & Meyer, D. E. (2000). Aging and the psychological refractory period: Task-coordination strategies in young and old adults. Psychology and Aging, 15, 571-595. Abstract: Presents information on a study which examined the effect of aging on dual-task performance in the psychological refractory period. Discussion on the executive-process/interactive control architecture; Methodology; Discussion.

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     Schumacher, E. H., Lauber, E. J., Glass, J. M., Zurbriggen, E. L., Gmeindl, L., Kieras, D. E., & Meyer, D. E. (1999). Concurrent response-selection processes in dual-task performance: Evidence for adaptive executive control of task scheduling. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, 791-814. Abstract: This article reports 4 experiments that used the psychological refractory period procedure to characterize how people perform multiple tasks concurrently. For each experiment, a primary choice-reaction task was paired with a secondary choice-reaction task that had two levels of response-selection difficulty. Experiments 1 and 2 varied secondary-task response-selection difficulty by manipulating the number of stimulus response (S-R) pairs. The effect of this factor on secondary-task reaction times (RTs) decreased reliability as the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) decreased. Experiments 3 and 4 varied secondary-task response-selection difficulty by manipulating S-R compatibility. Again, the effect of this factor on secondary task RTs decreased reliably as SOA decreased. These results raised doubts about the existence of an immutable structural response-selection bottleneck and suggest that response selection for 2 concurrent tasks may overlap temporally.

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     Meyer, D. E., Kieras, D. E., Lauber, E., Schumacher, E. H., Glass, J., Zurbriggen, E., Gmeindl, L., & Apfelblat, D. (1995). Adaptive executive control: Flexible multiple-task performance without pervasive immutable response-selection bottlenecks. Acta Psychologica, 90, 163-190. (Reprinted in Polk, T. A., & Seifert, C. M. (Eds.) (2002). Cognitive modeling (pp. 101-128). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.) Abstract: A new theoretical framework, the EPIC (Executive-Process/Interactive-Control) architecture, provides the basis for accurate detailed computational models of human multiple-task performance. Contrary to the traditional response-selection bottleneck hypothesis, EPIC's cognitive processor can select responses and do other procedural operations simultaneously for multiple concurrent tasks. using this capacity together with flexible executive control of peripheral perceptual-motor components, EPIC computational models account well for various patterns of mean reaction times, systematic individual differences in multiple-task performance, and influences of special training on people's task coordination strategies. These diverse phenomena, and EPIC's success at modeling them, raise strong doubts about the existence of a pervasive immutable response-selection bottleneck in the human information-processing system. The present research therefore helps further characterize the nature of discrete versus continuous information processing.

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In Press Articles
     Duncan, L. E., Peterson, B. E., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (in press). Personality and politics: Introduction to the special issue. To appear in Journal of Personality.
     Peterson, B. E., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (in press). Gender, sexuality, and the authoritarian personality. To appear in Journal of Personality.
     Zurbriggen, E. L. (in press). Implicit motives, sexual conservatism, and sexual behavior. To appear in Journal of Social Psychology.
     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Capdevila, R. (in press). The personal and the political are feminist: Exploring the relationships between feminism, psychology, and political life. To appear in Psychology of Women Quarterly.
     Zurbriggen, E. L. (in press). Rape, war, and the socialization of masculinity: Why our refusal to give up war ensures that rape can't be eradicated. To appear in Psychology of Women Quarterly.
     Purcell, N., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (in press). The sexualization of girls and gendered violence: Mapping the connections. To appear in E. L. Zurbriggen and T.-A. Roberts (Eds.), The sexualization of girls and girlhood. New York: Oxford University Press.
     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (in press). Fighting sexualization: What parents, teachers, communities, and kids can do. To appear in E. L. Zurbriggen and T.-A. Roberts (Eds.), The sexualization of girls and girlhood. New York: Oxford University Press.
     Roberts, T.-A., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (in press). The problem of sexualization: What is it and how does it happen? To appear in E. L. Zurbriggen and T.-A. Roberts (Eds.), The sexualization of girls and girlhood. New York: Oxford University Press.
     Zurbriggen, E. L., & Sherman, A. M. (in press). Race and gender in the 2008 U. S. presidential election: A content analysis of political cartoons. To appear in Analysis of Social Issues and Public Policy.