The following table lists the research papers and notable features of each in alphabetical order (by author)

Citation	Purpose	Participants	Research design	Methods	Context	Language program type	Results
Aninao, J.C. (1993). Training high school ESL students to use language learning strategies. (Doctoral Dissertation Stanford University, 1993)	To instruct ESL students in use of cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies and assess the frequency students’ use of the learned strategies	Seven beginning high school English language learners in suburban San Francisco Bay Area school.	Interview, multiple data sources	case study	reading/language	ESL	The researcher instructed the students in the following cognitive strategies: imagery, transfer, recombination and reciprocal teaching. Students were taught to use visualization techniques to help them remember vocabulary words (imagery), make connections with their native language (transfer), and use It was found that students were able to use recombination and imaging effectively, but strategies of cognitive transfer and reciprocal teaching were more difficult.
Clark, S.T. (1999). Factors promoting literacy development of first-grade English language learners in monolingual-English classes at one elementary school (Doctoral Dissertation: The Claremont Graduate University)	Investigated the language learning of native Spanish-speaking students in a post-Proposition 227 first grade	Learners (ELLs) in six monolingual-English first grades at one California school	Observations, interviews	40 visits to the research site over a six-month period and included 90 hours of observations, teacher questionnaires, 15 hours of semi-structured interviews, and examination of classroom and school documents.	All content areas	ELD	. The study found that effective instruction for these relied on four themes: a coherent school-wide educational philosophy which supported the overall program design of the first grade, (b) a consistent literacy pedagogy which informed all aspects of the literacy program, (c) exceptional teacher participation in a variety of professional development experiences, and (d) the commitment of resources in ways which maximized the efforts of on-site professionals.
Garcia, G.E. (1991). Factors influencing the English reading test performance of Spanish-speaking Hispanic children. Reading Research Quarterly, 26(4), 371-392	To identify factors that influence English reading test performance in second language students.	51 bilingual (Spanish) and 53 monolingual fifth and sixth grade students		interviews	reading	English only classroom	Spanish speaking students’ reading test scores “seriously underestimated their reading comprehension potential.” Tests results and qualitative evidence were negatively affected by limited prior knowledge, poor performance on questions that required use of background knowledge, lack of understanding of vocabulary and literal interpretation of the test. Because it was found that students used Spanish to interpret vocabulary and understand English reading passages, it was suggested that literacy in Spanish should not be overlooked when trying to improve English reading comprehension
Giacchino-Baker, R. (1992). Recent Mexican immigrant students’ opinions of their use and acquisition of English as a second language in an “English-Only” American high school: A qualitative study (Doctoral dissertation, The Claremont Graduate University, 1992).	To determine under what conditions Mexican immigrant students think they use and acquire English as a second language in an ‘English only’ high school.”	14 recently arrived high school age Mexican immigrants.	case study, ethnography	observation and interviews	students were “shadowed” throughout the school day	11 students from different levels of ESL classes (beginning, intermediate and advanced).	Three themes related to classroom instruction were addressed in the results 1) What students say about their current use of English 2) Educational and Institutional factors that affect student’s use of English and 3) Students’ suggestions for improvement.
Goatley, V.J., Brock, C.H., & Raphael, T.E. (1995). Diverse learners participating in regular education "book clubs". Reading-Research-Quarterly, 30, 352-380.	To study how student-led discussion groups provide literacy learning opportunities for diverse student participation, including ELL	A classroom of 5^th graders, urban school location	Ethnography	Observation, interviews.	Reading, language arts	Mainstreamed class.	ELL students who were normally placed in a pull-out program were invited to participate in “book club” conversations within a “regular” classroom. ELL found ways to participate and lead discussions while gaining a greater command of English.
Godina, H. (1998). Mexican-American high-school students and the role of literacy across home school-community settings. (Doctoral Dissertation University of Illinois, 1998)	To study the interaction of home and school on literacy growth	15 secondary ELL	Ethnography	Observation, interviews	Across academic subjects	ELL and content class	Literacy practices differed at home and school, creating challenges not faced on native English speakers. The school failed to use student home literacy events in instructional setting.
González,-Edfelt, N. (1990). Oral interaction and collaboration at the computer: Learning English as a Second language with the help of your peers. Computers in the Schools, 7(1-2), 53-90.	To assess the effects of language proficiency of peer and role of computer in advancing English.	16 male 5^th grade Latino students	Experimental, multigroup, and qualitative	Videotape analysis	Working on The Oregon Trail computer simulation software	Various programs	NEP, LEP, FEP (bilingual E/S) and Monolingual English speakers were paired with one another in every combination possible. NEP students asked almost no questions when working with ME students. Most interactions occurred when NEPs were working the FEPs. Cooperative learning appeared to be related to growth in English among all ELLs.
Hruska, B.L. (2000). Bilingualism, gender, and friendship: Constructing second language learners in an English dominant Kindergarten. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (Vancouver, BC, Canada, March 2000).	Provide ethnographic data on the ways in which young language learners construct meaning while learning English.	Six Spanish-dominant English language learners.	Observations	Ethnography	English kindergarten	English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) and Spanish Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE) "pull-out" programs	This article draws on data collected during a year-long ethnographic study and demonstrates how the meanings of these three local discourses and their inherent power dynamics shape students' identities, classroom participation, access to relationships, access to knowledge, and ultimately their investment in school.
Huang, S.C, & Chang, S.F. (1998). Self-efficacy in learners of English as a second language: Four examples. Journal of Intensive English Studies, 12, 23-40.	To study ELL self-efficacy	Four secondary school students	Case studies	Interview	ESL class	ESL	Adopted a qualitative research method to understand participants' self-efficacy phenomena in their English-as-a-Second-Language learning. The study also used quantitative research to examine the essences underlying participants'self-efficacy and their relationship with participants' achievements
Joyce, D.C. (1997). Strategies for responding to the writing of ESL students. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 421 014).	To explore the value of various editing strategies in improving writing skills	24 ELL 7^th graders	Survey	Examined writing skills pre and post training	Middle school ELD/English	ELD class	Great gains with peer editing., greater with teacher-student editing strategies.
Kaplan, R.G., & Patino, R.A. (1996). Teaching mathematical problem solving to students with limited English proficiency. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY, April 1996	To test effectiveness of instructional strategies used to help ELL learn to solve word problems.	30 bilingual 6^th grade students	Ethnography	Observations, videotape analysis, interviews	Mathematics	Bilingual 6^th grade. LOInstruction is English	Experimental strategy: a) Provide a linguistic warm-up to the problem, b) Breakdown of the problem into natural grammatical phrases, b) breakdown of the problem into natural grammatical phrases (meaning graphic representations, gestures, physical enactments, rephrasing the problem), c) Students then worked problems in pairs, d) Students present their solutions to the group, e) students create their own math problems with similar structures.
McConnell, V.H. (1996). Along the way toward English proficiency with content teachers, tutors, and LEP students: A qualitative study of language and learning at the secondary level. (Doctoral Dissertation University of New Mexico, 1996)	A study of secondary ELL students and their experiences in a social studies class	ELL in three social studies classrooms, their teacher and a bilingual aide.	Case study	Interviews, observations	A large high school, social studies	Content ESL program	Discovered that the cooperative arrangements developed by the bilingual aide created small learning communities among the ELL students. In addition, the use of the native language in developing language use in social studies was not seen as detrimental.
Medina, S. (1990). The effects of music upon second language vocabulary acquisition. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, March San Francisco, CA.	To study the effects of music upon vocabulary acquistion.	48 second graders, all ELL, Latino, low income	Survey, experiment	Interview, vocab measurement	Reading vocabulary	ESL within a bilingual program.	Found that illustrations and music helped students recall English vocab words, especially among those students who had lower English proficiency.
Pilgreen, J., & Krashen, S. (1993). Sustained silent reading with English as a second language high school students: Impact on reading comprehension, reading frequency, and reading enjoyment. School Library Media Quarterly, 22(1), 21-23	Study effectiveness of a SSR program for	125 hs ESL students	Pre-post interviews	One group design	Reading	ESL	Qualitative: 71% enjoyed the SSR reading program and broadened the sources of books they read. Quantiative: Stanford Diagnostic Reading scores effect size of about .75
Poglinco, S.M. (1997). La meta, el desvio, and la superacion: Student images of success and achievement: A qualitative study of Latina second language learners in high school. (Doctoral Dissertation New York University, 1997)	Study how Latinas goals for school meshed with the programs dealt them at school.	Seven high school girls, ages 16-18, 11^th grade	Ethnography	Interviews, observations	Across subjects, students were all enrolled in a bilingual program	BE	Students wondered about the effectiveness of Spanish at this level since the courses to graduate were all in English. Teachers used a method for developing Spanish literacy while developing English. Students were allowed to conduct translations for their work.
Salvador, H., & Perez, O.R.J. (1995). Appraising curriculum and instruction practices in bilingual programs in elementary schools varying in effectiveness: A qualitative and quantitative comparison. Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 15, page numbers unknown. Also found at www.ncbe.gwu.edu/miscpubs/ jeilms/vol15/appraising.htm	Discover the differences in instructional practices between schools ranked as exemplary vs. those ranked lower.	108 elementary teachers	Case study	Interviews, field observations	All content areas in elementary school.	Bilingual	Teachers in exemplary schools differed in reporting that they had sufficient materials in assisting their students in the transition from Spanish to English. Furthermore, they understood the district policy for transitioning from Spanish to English. Clear guidelines make a difference.
Tujay, S., Jennings, L., & Dixon, C. (1995). Classroom discourse and opportunities to learn: An ethnographic study of knowledge construction in a bilingual third grade class. Discourse Processes, 19, 75-110	The authors sought to understand the processes by which bilingual/monolingual speakers “co-construct” meaning while pursuing a common task (writing about a trip into space). Based on the whole social construction of meaning.	6 third graders, three bilingual, one mono Spanish, one mono English. One classroom	Ethnography	interviews, observation	Students were writing a story about visiting planets with aliens.	Two-way bilingual education	Students were given time and space and flexibility to produce their stories. Student stories were dramatically improved as students shared work, involved many others, and saw the teacher as resource rather than arbiter of quality.
Varela, E.E. (1997). Speaking solo: Using learning strategy instruction to improve English language learners’ oral presentation skills in content based ESL. (Doctoral Dissertation Georgetown University, 1993)	Test the effectiveness of learning strategy instruction	41 students in grades 6-8.	Interviews, other quantitative data	General qualitative strategy	ESL content classes, middle school.	ESL content classes	Study found that learning strategies are beneficial in providing students with language tools they will need to rely on in content classes taught in English. Use of learning strategies was associated with enhanced performance.
Villar, J.A. (1999). A model for developing academic language proficiency in English language learners through instructional conversations. (Doctoral Dissertation Indiana University, 1999)	Studied the effectiveness of IC	20 10^th graders Latino ELL	Ethnography	Interview, observations	Across content areas	ELD secondary.	Found that instructional conversations (IC) enhanced students’ abilities to connect current and past learning. An effective teaching tool for ELLs. Also, using a thematic focus for content instruction helps develop both content knowledge and English skills.

Summary and Analysis of Results

The papers reviewed above were each sorted into categories based on key words; then a second sort was compiled by a further re-categorization based on both the concepts studied and findings. Once arrived a final sort, the papers were randomized and again sorted based on concepts studied. This final sort yielded the same results as the initial sort, suggesting that the final categories were sound. However, no claim is made here for the reliability of the paper sort (i.e., other researchers may find that the categories here are not exclusive).

In this summary and analysis narrative, additional policy and research papers are added to the review for coherence and clarity. These supplementary articles are not included in the tables above but are included in the reference section that follows. They are presented in no particular order.

Community-building teaching practices

The first effective teaching strategy uncovered by the qualitative research synthesis was related to, but extended well beyond, what is commonly known as cooperative learning. Many experimental (and most often quantitative) studies have demonstrated the positive effects of cooperative learning among ELL (e.g., Calderon, Hertz-Lazarowitz, & Slavin, 1998). However, the qualitative research reviewed here suggested a broader and more comprehensive role for cooperative learning. Each of the papers addressing the importance of social interactions for learning language considered group tasks as crucial experiences for language learning. However, they generally believed that interactional learning encouraged a strong form of social cooperation and discourse that in turn drove language learning. This is a crucial difference between experimental studies of cooperative learning among language learners and qualitative and ethnographic studies of the same; that is, the difference between the ethnographers’ perspective on group learning and the traditional perspective on cooperative learning turns on the distinction between teaching strategies alone and much broader view of teaching based on social relationships. Perhaps it is because of the way that ethnographers approach their research, or perhaps it is simply their predisposition to see all interactions as socially meaningful, whether or not such relations serve a learning function. But for the most part, they saw genuine social relationships and the talk that emerged from these relationships as the primary engine of language learning.

The term cooperative learning fails to capture fully the type of learning under study by these researchers. Because the qualitative researchers’ focus is trained on the social aspects of language use, the term community-building learning, a concept well-developed by Kahne (1996) in the educational context, appears to be a more apt description. Community-building thought in education has its roots in John Dewey’s vision of community as a society in which rational and democratic decision-making processes enables the pursuit of common goals. Community-building of this type sees open discourse an essential feature of democracy. Further, community-building ideals call for community norms and values continuously help open to public critiques. In essence, a community-building belief in human societies suggests that open discourse leads to shared social values and free, unfettered social intercourse. Clearly, the goals and interests of a society based on community-building are not necessarily the development of language, but such social interactions cannot proceed without a heavy reliance on language.

The qualitative and often ethnographic research studies reviewed here began their interest in language and literacy growth among ELD students but in many cases discovered that the social growth resulting from students from diverse language and cultural backgrounds preceded and sometimes overshadowed language learning. For instance, Goatley, Brock, and Raphael, (1995) found that inviting ELL to join native English speaking book clubs not only improved their language skills but also allowed them an opportunity to share their cultural frame with other students. For one particular student, a Vietnamese immigrant, the effect was profound. Naturally, she made great language gains but also came to understand her role in the larger class as a spokesperson on many issues her native US classmates had little knowledge of. Their ethnography also revealed important language and social development made by the native US students as well.

The movement for conversation as a primary means of learning has its roots in Socrates’ view of the function of language, which, stated plainly, was to communicate from individual mind to individual mind, resulting in ontological agreements. More recently, the work of Vygotsky (1934/1978) has been called upon to support the notion that language development is yoked to the development of thought, with language doing the pulling. And Vygotsky’s now famous refutation of Piaget’s theory of egocentric speech as sharply limited in function supports the view that our early private language “serves mental orientation, conscious understanding…in overcoming difficulties” (p. 228). Egocentric speech becomes inner speech, which in turn becomes dialogue with others, each transition resulting in more complex thinking. In this model, language, spoken language in particular, drives understanding. Contemporary educational researchers have built on this body of theory and research by promoting academic discourse as the primary tool of learning in formal schooling settings (e.g., Barnes, 1976; Wells, 1986).

Tujay, Jennings, and Dixon (1995) represents well this traditional research line of shared language use as a means for language growth. They based their year-long ethnography of a third classroom of diverse language learners on principles more aligned with language learning goals than community-building ideals. Nevertheless, their conclusions sound remarkably like those found by Goatley, Brock, and Raphael (1995). As they observed a group of third grade students who varied in their English language proficiency that found that although a focus on common task (creating a “planet” story) did not necessarily offer each student the same opportunities to learn, it allowed students varied ways in which they could organize their own leaning, essentially creating an individual learning plan. Hruska (2000) also uses ethnography to show the relationship between social identity and language use for enhanced language achievement.. As a study of community-building language learning, this line of research also suggests that the interaction of the students served to create an important solidarity among the students which encouraged language events. A focus on community-building learning strategies seems to enhance language learning even when no student in the group has strong proficiency in English (Joyce, 1997; McConnell, 1996). In addition, the introduction of computers as a mediating factor in language development seems to enhance language development insofar as students remain in groups—or at least dyads—while working at the computer (González,-Edfelt, 1990).

The effectiveness of the community-building strategy has a historical and sociological rationale. For the better part of our history as a species, the only reason to learn another language was to communicate with people who spoke that language. Before nation-states identified “official” languages and enforced the learning of these privileged languages in formal schools, people learned additional languages because the people who spoke other languages had something they wanted, did something they thought was fascinating, or maybe were members of a group they needed in alliance against yet another group, among dozens of other purposes. The research reviewed in this section seems to building upon this ancient tradition. By creating conditions in which dialogue is genuine and in which social solidarity (i.e., getting to know these different people who speak this different language) and a shared goal are the primary purposes of interaction, educators who use community-building teaching strategies enhance language learning.

The conclusion from these studies suggests that inviting students who are learning English to engage in academic conversations with their peers is the primary tool of language learning. This finding may strike some as counter-intuitive. It might seem that ELL need proper language models such as teachers who can serve to develop the English skills. It seems doubtful that ELL interacting with similarly-skilled peers, especially peers who are sometimes less proficient in the language themselves, could work in concert to learn a second language. These studies suggest that the teacher should serve as a language model, but that the teacher is merely one model of many. It is perhaps more important that the students understand the teacher’s role in the classroom discourse as part of the community’s discourse rather than the arbiter of accuracy in the language.

A final observation suggests that cooperative, community-building strategies have long been associated with Latino culture, but community-building practices may in fact be a key element in all immigrant households. For instance, several studies (e.g., Mikyong, 1995) have shown that Asian families demonstrated a distinct propensity for cooperative strategies. Of course, Asian cultures, which are very often built on the Confucian value of filial piety, might be expected to rely on family learning structures. But it has been suggests that all immigrant families, irrespective of ethnicity, are more likely to rely on family members (both nuclear and extended) during the stressful acculturation process. Therefore, teachers who use community-building teaching practices are using a teaching strategy familiar to immigrant families. A full explanation for community-building practices among recent immigrants need not be fully explored here; however, schools must be cognizant of the value placed on cooperative knowledge-building among ELL’s families and exploit teaching strategies that resonate with this learning tool.

Multiple representations designed for understanding target language

A second instructional strategy suggested by the qualitative analysis is the heavy reliance on multiple representations in second language instruction. The wholly symbolic nature of all oral languages and most written languages (with the exception of idiographic language such as Chinese and Japanese) makes linking the meaning of words with some other representation of meaning mandatory for learning. The most obvious example of this strategy is the teacher who shows the students a picture of a dog when saying the word “dog.” The teacher who truly understands the nature of the cognitive linkage between words and the acquisition of their meaning will bring a live dog to the classroom and talk about it, using the term “dog” frequently.

Linking realia (e.g., live dogs) and words (symbolic signs) is perhaps the most common strategy in language teaching. But other methods of multiple representations have become more common in language learning classrooms. For instance, teachers who use graphic organizers are representing the relationships among words and concepts in the second language using visual stimuli (e.g., Tang, 1992).

Astorga (1999) studied the role of pictures and second language acquisition finding that pictures illustrating the written narrative facilitate the decoding process for children learning English. This research is part of a growing body of literature examining the role of images and text. While not working from the tradition of second language education, Tufte (1990), whose work has become quite popular among cognitive theorists who study comprehension of scientific concepts, helps us to understand the valuable role visual images can play in understanding. He writes:

Visual displays of information encourage a diversity of individual viewer styles and rates of editing, personalizing, reasoning, and understanding. Unlike speech, visual displays are simultaneously a wide-band a perceiver-controllable channel (p. 31).

The use of multiple media has not been lost on teachers, many of whom have discovered that video language support is highly effective in promoting language skills ( Clovis, 1997).

While the study of visual images such as pictures and word leaning is an important part of language teaching, learning a language is clearly more than acquiring the meaning discrete words. Rhythm, meter, and phonology are also language elements the thoughtful teacher must understand. Medina (1990) has found that music can benefit second language learners by helping students to learn the rhythm and diction of a new language.

The study of multiple representations deserves more attention from the research literature. In addition to the use of computers, media sources that provide an important context for language learning could make instruction more effective.

Building on prior knowledge

Nearly every effective lesson design model suggests that one of the first tasks of the teacher in the instructional event is the activation of prior knowledge. The simplicity of the phrase “activate” prior knowledge” belies the deep complexity and multiple interpretations the phrase suggests. For one teacher, activating prior knowledge may be simply reminding students of what was covered in yesterday’s lesson. For another, it means investigating the most sacred cultural values held by the students and creating lessons incorporating what she has learned. For yet another, it means simply teaching what you know because your own cultural background mirrors the students’. So the operational definition of “activate prior knowledge” is quite indeterminate in the educational community. Yet in spite of this indeterminacy, the rationale runs clear: teachers must understand what students already know, so that they may build on the knowledge students have. This crucial idea in the formation of any educational experience has been repeated in one form or another since the formal study of education began. Plato, in his “Meno's Paradox,” made the problem of prior knowledge the centerpiece of his epistemology. Dewey, in Experience and Education, noted "that the beginning of instruction shall be made with the experiences learners already have" (p. 74). Contemporary cognitive psychologists point out the centrality of prior knowledge when they use terms such as schema. And each time educators talk of constructivism, they are admitting to the importance of prior knowledge.

The role of prior knowledge and its importance in working with ELL is the focus of several papers in this review. Most notably, Garcia (1991) found that prior knowledge played an important role when Latino ELL were asked to demonstrate their knowledge on several tests of literacy. The qualitative evidence reported in this study indicated that students limited backgroun knowledge of the content (knowledge assumed to be held by all students) negatively affected by limited prior knowledge, poor performance on questions that required use of background knowledge, lack of understanding of vocabulary and literal interpretation of the test. Because it was found that students used Spanish to interpret vocabulary and understand English reading passages, it was suggested that literacy in Spanish should not be overlooked when trying to improve English reading comprehension. In another study of Mexican-American high school ELL, Godina (1998) found that teachers who used Mexicano culture were much more successful than those teachers who ignored the cultural and linguistic knowledge altogether.

Aninao (1993) tested the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies in secondary ELL. While metacognitive strategies are not typically considered building on prior knowledge, Aninao’s research had the best fit in this category. In a year-long study designed to test the effectiveness of cognitive and metacognitive, each student was instructed in the use of imagery (the use of visualization techniques to help them remember vocabulary words), transfer (the development of semantic connections with their native language), recombination (the use the known words in sentences), and reciprocal teaching (the use of strategies designed to prepare students to ask questions to assess comprehension, summarize, and clarify). The metacognitive strategies used were self-monitoring and self-evaluation. Students were instructed to ask themselves the following questions: “:What do I already know?”, “Am I sure that I know this?”, “What do I still need to learn?”, “How am I going to learn this?” and “How can I be sure that I have learned this?” By extensive interviewing and classroom observation, Aninao found that students were able to use recombination and imaging effectively, but strategies of cognitive transfer and reciprocal teaching were more difficult. Students were not successful in using the metacognitive strategies of self-evaluation and self-monitoring. It was suggested that metacognitive strategies such as planning, self-monitoring and self-evaluation should be taught before cognitive strategies in order to maximize student achievement. It was also emphasized that because of the complexity of some of the tasks, teachers who use learning strategy training need to be fluent in the student’s native language. The overall results of the study were equivocal. The fact that the students were able to use imagery and recombination effectively (while other strategies were less successful) suggests that the metacognitive strategies used in this study are part of larger effort to connect students to their previous knowledge.

Building on students’ cultural and linguistic knowledge remains one of education’s greatest mysteries. The role of prior knowledge, far from being a specific strategy, is one that will require much more research. Qualitative studies, such as those reviewed here, appear to have begun a tradition that will bring us closer to understand how effective instructional strategies make use of the knowledge students already have.

Protracted language events

Language can be learned only through its use. No rational linguist or language educator maintains that private study can result in second language competence. Communication among teachers and learners seems crucial for all language learning. The research reviewed here supports this assertion but also suggests that effective second language instruction must be built upon lengthy dialogues, referred to in this paper as protracted language events. This concept is similar to Gallimore and Goldenberg’s (1992) instructional conversations in language learning classrooms. In these qualitative studies, however, the specific form of the language events seemed to be less integral than its expansiveness.

In some ways, the use of protracted language events mirrors the essential features of first language development. Brown and Bellugi (1964), in their landmark research of children learning language, found an essential pattern to syntax and semantic speech when children are learning language with an adult (or more capable speaker). What follows is an example of this pattern with explanatory notes.

Speech Act (Child)	Notes
Child: “Look, doggy run.”	In using this form of telegraphic speech maintains the word order of a more proficient speaker of English.
Adult : “Yes, that funny dog is running fast. Look at him go.”	Adult repeats meaning of speech act, but expands using target form of the dialect, adding additional information and correcting form if necessary. The child is supported in her observation by having her meaning repeated. In addition, the adult has built additional meaning upon the child’s initial statement. Brown and Bellugi note that many rounds of this pattern provide enough language for the child to acquire the syntax—among other proficiencies—of the target language.
Adult protracts the language event by asking a question of the child: “Why is that funny dog running after that stick?”	Many child/adult interactions continue in this way. The adult has invited the dialogue to expand further, providing yet another opportunity for the child to both learn syntax and meaning.
Child: “He want stick.”	Child’s response is focused on meaning in spite of incorrect form.
Adult: “Yes, he wants to get that stick so that he can bring it back to the boy.”	Again, adult repeats meaning of speech act, expands using target form of the dialect, and adds additional information.

We can assume that children raised in this language environment are better prepared for the language events of the classroom.

As we consider the application of Brown and Bellugi’s research when working with ELL, we must first note that the content and complexity of protracted language events will be age appropriate. We must also note that the social relationship among teachers and students is certainly different than that a parent and a child. However, ELD teachers who utitlize protracted language events understand the value of “keeping the conversation going”, a feature of language acquisition that not only bonds teacher and student socially but also enhances the development of language comprehension (Bridges, Sinha, & Walkerdine; 1981). They set in motion for the their students a dialogue that continues moving. They engender conversations that offer ELL an opportunity to be understood, a chance for their speech acts to be valued, and the occasion to be corrected for form without humiliation. Giacchino-Baker (1992) discovered that secondary ELL students reported that they needed more time and more interactions with their teacher to learn English. A similar concern was reported in another study of secondary ELL (Poglinco, 1997). These students understood that when teachers were able to engage in protracted language events with them they acquired more language. Villar (1999) found that the methods of instructional conversation when combined with the time to engage in expansive lessons served to improve English language acquisiton.

Pilgreen and Krashen (1993) found that protracted language events with text alone encouraged increased English skills. After implementing a sustained silent reading program with secondary ELL, they found that students enjoyed books more, read more, and understood more of what they read. Even protracted language events when discussing mathematics appeared to advance English skills (Kaplan & Patino, 1996). Finally, Clark (1999) found that teachers who committed to language interactions created a schoolwide environment for language learning.

Wells (1986) is among those who argue that protracted speech acts form the foundation upon which all academic learning is built. He suggests the “co-construction of meaning” between teacher and students must be at the center of all schooling endeavors. His research, among many others (e.g., Tharp & Gallimore; 1988), offers evidence that effective instruction among all learners begins with genuine discourse. ELL may simply need more.

Corollary Category: Structural Obstacles to Effective Instruction

The themes of qualitative and ethnographic studies, at least in this point in their development, tend to focus on the structural educational supports and barriers encountered by ELL students. For instance, many studies of ELL students find that their achievement is limited because their teachers are not specifically prepared for working with them. Godina (1998) interviewed a teacher who was quite willing to share her ignorance of ELD instruction, in spite of teaching many ELL: “It’s really hard for me because I am not trained in ESL. And, it’s really frustrating for me since I don’t know how to deal with it” (p. 95). This dilemma presents itself as a clear structural barrier rather than the use of an ineffective teaching strategy. This teacher could not begin to implement an effective language teaching program because she had no knowledge of them. This structural barrier could be removed if the school were able to provide training for such teachers. In addition to unprepared teachers, several studies pointed to inappropriate placement in ESL classes or lower-track courses, an un-engaging curricula, a lack of thematic instruction and a general failure in helping students ELL in making personal and cultural connections (Giacchino-Baker, 1992).

Summary

Qualitative research in education has explored new concepts in effective instruction. Further, it has exposed new relationships among familiar ideas. It has encouraged educators, researchers and policymakers alike to reconsider some of our common assumptions about second language learning. By listening to the voices of ELL, ELD teachers, and the community, qualitative studies have encouraged us to pay closer attention to the context and processes of learning while also attending to outcomes. Far removed from the process-product research that once dominated educational research, qualitative studies have, to the lament of some, complicated our views of schooling. But the full realization of qualitative research in the study of effective teaching practice in language education will require more time. Sanday’s(1982) comments, made nearly 20 years ago still need repeating:

The well written ethnography has the capacity of reaching an audience in a way no other scholarly product can possibly aspire to. Similarly the sensitively conducted presentation to teachers of videotaped interaction has the capacity to change behavior in a way that a manual for proper conduct cannot. It is important to keep this is mind as we continue to explore the ethnographic paradigm (p. xv).

The conclusions drawn from these studies must be considered tentative. Indeed, as Gersten and Baker (1999) point out, even the best quantitative studies of effective instruction for ELL fail to provide much of an empirical knowledge base from which to develop policy. Nevertheless, the studies reviewed here found that that community-building teaching practices, protracted language events, building on prior knowledge, and using multiple representations designed for teaching new languages are strategies likely to increase learning among ELL.

References

Aninao, J.C. (1993). Training high school ESL students to use language learning strategies. (Doctoral Dissertation Stanford University, 1993)

Astorga, M.C. (1999). The text-image interaction and second language learning. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 22(3), 212-233.

Bailey, K.M., & Nunen, D. (1996). Voices from the language classroom: Qualitative studies in second language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Barnes, D. (1976), From communication to curriculum. New York: Penguin.

Bridges, A., Sinha, C., & Walkerdine, V. (1981). The development of comprehension. In G. Wells (Ed.), Learning through interaction: The study of language development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brown, R.& Bellugi, U. (1964). Three processes in the child’s acquisition of syntax. Harvard Education Review, 34(2), 133-151.

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Clark, S.T. (1999). Factors promoting literacy development of first-grade English language learners in monolingual-English classes at one elementary school (Doctoral Dissertation: The Claremont Graduate University)

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Index/Database	Description	Usage
Education Abstracts	Education Abstracts is a bibliographic database that indexes and abstracts articles of at least one column in length from English-language periodicals and yearbooks published in the United States and elsewhere from 1983-present. Abstracting coverage begins with January 1994. Abstracts range from 50 to 300 words and describe the content and scope of the source documents.	This report relied on Education Abstracts to locate published, often refereed research papers, typically published in academic journals (e.g., Bilingual Research Journal).
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)	ERIC is a national information system designed to provide ready access to an extensive body of education-related literature. Established in 1966, ERIC is supported by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement and is administered by the National Library of Education (NLE). At the heart of ERIC is the largest education database in the world-containing more than 1 million records of journal articles, research reports, curriculum and teaching guides, conference papers, and books.	This report relied on ERIC to locate unpublished reports and references to papers presented at conferences. In addition, ERIC will often index evaluation reports not published in journals.
California Digital Library (CDL)	CDL is a collaborative effort of the UC campuses, organizationally housed at the University of California Office of the President. It is responsible for the design, creation, and implementation of systems that support the shared collections of the University of California. CDL includes Melvyl Union Catalog (CAT) and the California Periodicals database (PE). Library materials owned by UC and others.	This report relied on CDL to locate books, book chapters, and magazine reports.
Dissertation Abstracts	Dissertation Abstracts is the nationwide index of dissertations and thesis completed in past 30 years.	This report relied on CDL to locate dissertations and theses. This index was particularly useful because many qualitative research projects in second language education are lengthy and therefore unlikely to be compressed to journal form from its original length.

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